Soil is one of our most valued commodities on this planet and every living creature depends on it in some way or other. It is precious.

Nature is a constant balancing act, trying to maintain the most comfortable conditions for life, while containing all action and reaction forces. It’s by these balancing forces that chemical weathering occurs. This force and by the life’s work of an elaborate array of microscopic life, rocks and all living things are broken down to produce a mixture of mineral materials, organic matter, water, and air in varying proportions. This mixture is called ‘earth’ or ‘soil’, the substance from which our planet takes its name.

The soil minerals and compounds are variably soluble in water. These move with water flow and natural earth shaping forces which causes distinct soil horizons. Within the various soil horizons the soil particles vary in both size and how they are packed together.

As the primary minerals in soil weather, the elements combine into new and colourful compounds. The loosely stacked structure is filled with spaces containing liquid and air which forms the soils “atmosphere”. It’s in the soils atmosphere where the majority of chemical exchanges occur and this gives rise to the various life cycles competing for the limited reserves of nutrients.

Plant roots, bacteria, fungi, and small animals are abundant in its top layer. “There is neither beginning nor end in soil, but only continuity; an unbroken progression of birth, growth, reproduction, decline, death, decay, rebirth - a continuous flow of substances passing from one form of life to another, round and round the cycle without end.”

As all the soil creatures and plants end their life cycles, the organic matter decomposes and mixes with the upper soil layers, ultimately shaping the type of soil formed over time. All soils are part of an ecosystem which includes the physical and chemical environment and the biological community. In soil, animals, insects, and micro-organisms help to maintain a cycle that is very important to the survival of life, the nutrient cycle.
Soil micro-organisms such as bacteria break down organic materials and rock and release nutrients. Without this breakdown, the soil would not have the nutrients for organic life forms. These organisms that break down organic material are called decomposers and are responsible for the fertility of the soil.

Decomposition begins at the moment of death, when the flow of essential fluids within any living body stops. It starts with the loss of the stored water in the body of the plant or organism by means of physical break-up or fragmentation. This is caused by the body's own internal chemicals and enzymes. This is followed by the breakdown of tissues by bacteria. Organic substances therefore decompose at different rates due to their chemical structures and due to what bacteria and enzymes are present. This breakdown is further aided by fungi and various soil creatures, worms and insects. Following this, the matter undergoes further chemical alterations by various microbes, most of which are bacteria.

Biodegradation or bio-mineralisation is the final process in the cycle of an organic life and occurs when organic matter is converted into minerals. At this microscopic level, a massive family of micro-organisms, or microbes, exist. They have the ability to degrade, transform or accumulate mineral compounds and this largely creates the infrastructure of this hidden world which is astonishingly rich in diversity. The shapes, colours, landscapes and variety of creatures in this realm, rivals our familiar biome of animals and plants by massive factors.

Organic matter is matter that has come from a once-living organism, and ‘humus’ which is Latin for earth, is organic material that has decomposed and reached a stable state in the soil. Humus has a characteristic black or dark brown colour which is due to an abundance of organic carbon within it. Biologically, humus is often described as the 'life-force' of the soil. Yet it is difficult to define humus in precise terms; it is a highly complex substance, the full nature of which is still not fully understood. It is a mixture of compounds and complex life chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin, which has many functions and benefits in the soil. Earthworm humus (vermicompost) is considered by some to be the best organic manure there is. Physically, it helps the soil retain moisture by increasing micro porosity, and encourages the formation of good soil structure. The humus structure within the soil, allows for a higher population of micro-organisms and other creatures, thus maintaining high and healthy levels of soil life. It contributes to the crumb structure of the soil by holding particles together and allowing greater aeration of the soil. Humus can hold the equivalent of 80–90% of its weight in moisture, and therefore increases the soil's capacity to withstand drought conditions. The biochemical structure of humus enables it to moderate acid or alkaline soil conditions. The dark colour of humus helps to warm up cold soils in the spring.

Nutrients in soil are chemical elements or compounds that an organism needs to live. It’s used by an organism's metabolism to grow. Plants ingest nutrients directly from the soil through their roots or from the atmosphere. Organic nutrients include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, amino acids and vitamins. A nutrient is essential to an organism if it cannot be synthesized by the organism in sufficient quantities and must be obtained from an external source. Nutrients needed in relatively large quantities are called macronutrients and those needed in relatively small quantities are called micronutrients. The chemical elements consumed in the greatest quantities by plants are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These are present in the environment in the form of water and carbon dioxide; energy is provided by sunlight. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulphur are also needed in relatively large quantities. Together, these are the elemental macronutrients for plants. Other chemical elements are also necessary to carry out various life processes and build structures, but usually in much smaller quantities.

Seaweed fertilizer is a valuable addition to the organic garden, and is abundantly available free for those living near the coast. A problem with seaweed is its salt content, it is not liked by worms, which will not live in it. It can be added to the compost heap, where it is an excellent activator. In terms of soil structure it does not add a great deal of bulk, but its jelly like alginate content helps to bind soil crumbs together, and it contains all soil nutrients (0.3% N, 0.1% P, 1.0% K, plus a full range of trace elements).

Agricultural lime, also called garden lime or liming (soil) is a soil additive made from pulverized limestone or chalk. The primary active component is calcium carbonate.

it increases the pH of acidic soil
it provides a source of calcium for plants
it permits improved water penetration for acidic soils

Other forms of lime have common applications in agriculture and gardening, including dolomitic lime and hydrated lime. Dolomitic lime may be used as a soil input to provide similar effects as agricultural lime, while supplying magnesium in addition to calcium. In horticultural farming it can be used as an insect repellent, without causing harm to the pest or plant.

Rock dust is an organic fertilizer consisting of crushed basalt, a volcanic rock, which contains minerals and trace elements. Rock dust is added to soil to improve fertility, increase moisture-holding properties, improve cation exchange capacity and better soil structure and drainage. Rock dust also provides calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus and potassium, plus trace elements and micronutrients. Often phosphorus is locked in soils due to many years of application of traditional fertilisers. The use of micronutrient rich fertiliser enables plants to access locked phosphorus. The calcium and magnesium in high quality has the ability to neutralise pH in soils, in effect acting as a liming agent.

Coir is a coarse fibre extracted from the fibrous outer shell of a coconut. There are two varieties of coir. Brown coir is harvested from fully ripened coconuts. It is thick, strong and has high abrasion resistance. It is typically used in mats, brushes and sacking. White coir fibres are harvested from the coconuts before they are ripe. These fibres are white or light brown in colour and are smoother and finer, but also weaker. They are generally spun to make yarn that is used in mats or rope. The coir fibre is relatively water-proof and is one of the few natural fibres resistant to damage by salt water. In horticulture, coir is recommended as substitute for sphagnum moss because it is free of bacteria and fungal spores, and is sustainably produced without the environmental damage caused by peat mining. Coir is now being used as mulch, soil treatment and a hydroponic growth medium.

Vermiculite is a natural mineral that expands with the application of heat. Vermiculite is formed by hydration of certain basaltic minerals. Vermiculite is a clay with a medium shrink-swell capacity. Vermiculite has a high cation exchange capacity. It is a soil conditioner and a slow release agent for agricultural chemicals and is used as a growing medium for hydroponics and as a sterile medium for egg incubation.

Perlite is an amorphous volcanic glass that has a relatively high water content, typically formed by the hydration of obsidian. It occurs naturally and has the unusual property of greatly expanding (7–16 times its original volume) when heated. Due to its low density and relatively low price, many commercial applications for perlite have developed. In horticulture perlite can be used as a soil amendment or alone as a medium for hydroponics or for starting cuttings. When used as an amendment it helps prevent water loss and soil compaction. Perlite is an excellent filter aid. It contains 70-75% silicon dioxide: SiO2

Compost is the end result of controlled decomposition of organic matter known as composting. Compost is a porous, absorbent material that holds moisture and soluble minerals, providing the support and nutrients in which plants can flourish, although it is rarely used alone, being primarily mixed with soil, sand, grit, bark chips, vermiculite, perlite, or clay granules to produce loam.

Vermicast, similarly known as worm castings, worm humus or worm manure, is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by some species of earthworm. It contains water-soluble nutrients and bacteria. Vermicompost is an excellent, nutrient-rich organic fertilizer and soil conditioner. The process of producing vermicompost is called vermicomposting. Vermicompost has been shown to be richer in many nutrients than compost produced by other composting methods. It is rich in microbial life which converts nutrients already present in the soil into plant-available forms.
Unlike other compost, worm castings also contain worm mucus which helps prevent nutrients from washing away with the first watering and holds moisture for longer.

•
•

•

•

•
•
•
•
•

Improves its physical structure.
Enriches soil with micro-organisms (adding enzymes such as phosphatase and cellulase)
Microbial activity in worm castings is 10 to 20 times higher than in the soil and organic matter that the worm ingests
Attracts deep-burrowing earthworms already present in the soil
Improves water holding capacity
Enhances germination, plant growth, and crop yield
Adds plant hormones such as auxins and gibberellic acid
Reduces waste flow to landfills
Elimination of ‘wet’ wastes from the waste stream and reduces contamination of other recyclables collected in a single bin.

The burrowing earthworm is Nature's own plough, her chemist, her cultivator, her fertilizer and her distributor of food. In every way, the earthworm surpasses anything man has yet invented to work the soil. In Nature there is no waste. Everything, animal and plant, when its life is terminated, returns to its original elements, either in the soil or in the waters. The earthworm, whose importance is universally accepted and admitted by scientists, has played a very important role in the dramatic formation of plant life on earth, from time so distant that scientists can merely guess as to the age of this invertebrate animal. But, regardless of the age, men are agreed that mankind may rightly acknowledge the earthworm as one of his best friends. Low as earthworms are in the scale of life, they show unmistakable intelligence. Charles Darwin's experimentations with them conclusively proved that instinct alone could not guide them so consistently.

Mankind is at the last frontier. There is no new soil to be had in the horizontal plane. His hope lies in building new soil vertically. As farmers are well aware, the principal argument used against them by soil scientists, is based on mathematics. 'The crop takes out more than the compost puts back. The result must be a deficiency, but studies indicate that there is a practical solution. An earthworm population of around 1,500,000 an acre is enough to keep the soil as productive as man can want it.

Countless thousands of years before the rocky face or surface of the earth disintegrated to form what we call soil, an extensive list of animals and plants lived in the waters. Marine worms were undoubtedly present in those obscure ages. In time, as the waters receded, various animals and plants -- to meet the requirements of their changing environment -- evolved certain anatomical organs to meet the new conditions. Joining in this natural and evolutionary parade of water born animals and plants, some marine worms acquired physical characteristics which permitted them to live, first in very marshy ground, and later in "dry land." While the terrestrial earthworms differ greatly from their marine relations of today, there are, however, many features and characteristics in both that are relatively alike. It is on these likenesses that science bases its contention that the earthworm evolved from its marine prototype. Earthworms are a bound in practically every geological section of this planet. Many species of earthworms peregrinate, that is, they travel and migrate extensively. Some species are known to scale and cross high mountain ranges, though such migration probably required many hundreds of years.

The vital organs of the earthworm are under the clitellum. This band is the chief characteristic of the earthworm, distinguishing it from all other worms.
Here, under this band, in compact uniformity, are seminal vesicles and receptacles, testis, ovaries, oviduct and an egg sac. Directly back of these is the crop, where the food is held until the gizzard, just beyond the crop, is ready to accept it. Next follows the intestine, a distinctly oval shaped tube, and then the rest of the alimentary canal to the vent or anus. The earthworm has a multiple system of hearts, through a complicated system; these hearts supply blood to all parts of the body. Yet, paradoxically enough, it is magnificently simple. In a comparative sense, the earthworm's system does to soil what the modern refinery does to crude oil. Minus lungs, the earthworm "breathes" through its moist epidermis or outer skin. If one were to gently squeeze an earthworm, minute drops of yellowish serum would be seen coming out from its pores. This serum is composed chiefly of oil of high medicinal value, and experiments for its extraction are in progress. The digestive fluid of the earthworm is of the same chemical nature as the pancreatic secretion in higher animals, which accounts for the worm's ability to digest meats and fats as well as starches and sugars.
Earthworms travel underground by the means of waves of muscular contractions which alternately shorten and lengthen the body. The shortened part is anchored to the surrounding soil by tiny claw-like bristles, setae. The whole burrowing process is aided by the secretion of lubricating mucus. Worms can make gurgling noises underground when disturbed as a result of the worm moving through its lubricated tunnels. They also work as biological "pistons' forcing air through the tunnels as they move. Except in highly porous soils, the earthworm must eat its way through. Having no teeth, everything before it, if not too large to swallow, is sucked into the mouth. It is by necessity, therefore a ravenous eater. Every morsel of soil and decayed vegetable and animal matter taken in by the earthworm passes through its digestive system. This is equipped with a gizzard-like organ. Here the food value in the swallowed matter is extracted for use by the worm. The rest is carried by muscular action down through, and out of, the alimentary canal. This waste matter is called castings.

Copulation and reproduction are separate processes in earthworms. Neither animal has external sexual organs, but has pores, through which the seminal fluids appear. The worms, driven solely by instinct when the procreative glands demand relief, seek a position that brings their bands together and remain thus, quite motionless, for as long as fifteen minutes. During this time, they exchange sperm with each other. The clitellum becomes very reddish to pinkish in colour. Some time after copulation, long after the worms have separated, the clitellum secretes the cocoon which forms a ring around the worm. The worm then backs out of the ring, and as it does so, injects its own eggs and the other worm's sperm into it. As the worm slips out, the ends of the cocoon seal to form a vaguely lemon-shaped incubator (cocoon) in which the embryonic worms develop. There will be from three to fifteen fertile eggs in a cocoon. Three weeks after the formation of the capsule, the worms eat their way out and start feeding. They emerge as small, but fully formed earthworms, about 2 mm in length and white in colour. In a few days they assume the typical reddish colour. The development of the sex structures, which develops in about 60 days, marks the earthworm’s passage into sexual maturity. To celebrate this, mating occurs every eight days thereafter for the rest of their lives.

Under favourable conditions, worms breed rapidly. They reach maturity in eight weeks and mate once a week, (the compost earthworms are known to live for over 4 years). In optimum conditions eight worms can produce 1500 offspring within six months. When a worm bed reaches the maximum population it can support, the worms will stop breeding and the clitellum will thin out and almost disappear.

Earthworms are classified into three main categories:

1.
2.
3.

Leaf litter/compost dwelling worms, e.g. Eisenia fetida;
Topsoil or subsoil dwelling worms; and
Deep burrowing worms; they construct permanent deep burrows:

Earthworm populations depend on both the physical and chemical properties of the soil, such as soil temperature, moisture, pH, salts, aeration and texture, as well as available food, and the ability of the species to reproduce and disperse. One of the most important environmental factors is pH, but earthworms vary in their preferences. Most earthworms favour neutral to slightly acidic soil. Various species of worms are used in Vermiculture; these are usually Eisenia Fetida (or its close relative Eisenia Andrei).

The most important thing, which consistent experiments and research work has brought to light, is that earthworms are as much in need of the food on which they were raised as the fish is in need of water. To understand the habits of the earthworm it is vitally important to learn about their diets, as the earthworm will devour anything it can swallow to receive their dietary necessities. If the soil in which the earthworm lives is deficient in life-giving necessities, the worm suffers. They like fats, nuts, milk -- in short, anything and everything that enriches the soil. Charles Darwin estimated that arable land contains up to 13 worms per square meter, but more recent research has produced figures suggesting that even poor soil may support 62 per square meter, whilst rich fertile farmland may have up to 432/m². That’s over 1.5M worms per acre. One thing is certain however, soil that is cared for organically and well nourished and husbanded by its steward will have a healthy worm population and excellent crops.

Science has admittedly known and appreciated the work of the earthworm for well over a century. Many farmers, orchardists and gardeners have realized that in soil in which earthworms lived, plant and vegetable life prospered. Chief among the favourable qualities of the earthworm is their excretions which are called worm casts or vermicast. The chemical and mineral elements of vermicast are used by the roots of plants and vegetables to grow. Through digestion these substances are changed in character so that they are highly soluble and when ejected are immediately available as plant food. Plants that are grown in vermicast and natural organic fertilizers have many benefits. In general, the foliage is thicker, a richer green, even at the top where others of its age show thin foliage and bare twigs. Trees are well filled with fruit and records show that they produce crops just as outstanding as their appearance. But the truly remarkable thing about plants grown in worm casts are they need less labour, less water, and less fertilizer than is used by any other method of farming. The absence of mechanical cultivation is the first puzzle which presents itself to horticulturists introduced to earthworm farming, because that responsibility is held by the earthworms, the world's finest and most efficient plough. The network of earthworm burrows aerates the soil far more effectively and much deeper than mere surface cultivation could. At the same time, the feeder rootlets, which are generally very near the surface, are left undamaged, and are therefore ready to absorb the maximum they can. The earthworms prefer the cooler soil under the plants and dig most of their burrows there. During irrigation; a large proportion of the water enters the soil through these burrows, with the result that most of it goes under the trees where the roots can use it, while much less than usual is wasted beyond the root zone. Earthworms are nature's own means of soil building and conditioning. No orchard or garden can do its best without them.

"Can I build top-soil?" Yes you can with earthworms. By the slow process of nature, it takes 500 to 1,000 years to lay down an inch of topsoil. Under favourable conditions a task-force of earthworms can do the same job in five days. Beginners should start on a small scale, so that they can thoroughly sell themselves on the virtue of the earthworm and learn what works. The most in need of the earthworm as a natural cultivator and fertilizer is the organic farmer and gardener. The orchardist, the small vegetable gardener, the nurseryman, the grain farmer and the fruit farmers can all benefit with the addition of earthworm farming.

In 1890 a study of the of the earthworms in agriculture found, as a result of five years' work, that the mere addition of earthworms to soil led to a marked increase of grain (35 to 50 per cent) and of straw (40 per cent). Equally favourable results were obtained with flax, potatoes, and beetroots. In not a single instance did the cultures suffer any damage from the earthworms. Earthworms markedly improved the permeability of soils and led to better aeration. The chemical composition of the soil inhabited by earthworms, has a considerable increase in soluble nitrogen and available minerals as compared with similar worm-free soil. In 1910 a study showed that earthworms contain nitrogen and when they decompose, they further nourish the soil. The results amplify and re-state in terms of chemistry, Darwin's conclusion that 'worms prepare the ground in an excellent manner for the growth of fibrous-rooted plants and for seedlings of all kinds'. The earthworm farmer of today will have the advantage of modern composting techniques and many other improvements which have been worked out during the past few decades. However, the earthworms remain the same, for they have come down to us practically unchanged, from remote geological ages to the present.

They are preyed upon by many species of birds. Earthworms are also eaten by many invertebrates such as ground beetles, snails and slugs. The application of chemical fertilizers and sprays can have a disastrous effect on earthworm populations. Nitrogenous fertilizers tend to create acid conditions, which are fatal to the worms, and often dead specimens are to be found on the surface following the application of substances like DDT, lime sulphur and lead arsenate. It is a matter of common knowledge that chemical manures influence the number of animals on the land. The results of three years' application of ammonium sulphate to sod on an experimental farm for fertilizing purposes have shown incidentally, that earthworms were eliminated. The use of artificial manures is not the only modern practice which destroys the earthworm. Hardly less injurious are the insecticide sprays, such as Bordeaux mixture and other powders containing copper salts, tar oils, and the lime sulphur washes. There is a growing volume of evidence from all over the world that agriculture took the wrong road when artificial manures were introduced to stimulate crop production and when poison sprays became common to check insect and fungous pests. Both these agencies destroy the earthworm and thus deprive the farmer of an important member of his unpaid labour force. There is also a strong case for believing that one of the roots of present-day disease in crops, livestock, and mankind can be traced to an impoverished soil and that these troubles are aggravated by the use of chemical manures.

Charles Darwin set off on a voyage in 1831 to study the exotic plants and animals of faraway places. Five years later, he returned with the discovery of a bittersweet truth about life: To survive and prosper on Earth, an individual and organism, alike, must wage a brutal battle for the limited nutrients and resources available. It's a contest driven largely by chance. This survival-of-the-fittest scenario takes place even at the level of molecules. On primordial Earth, chemicals with slight individual variations must have replicated themselves and competed with one another. The successful ones gave rise to the complex biological molecules that serve living organisms today. That's evolution. And ever since Darwin elucidated the idea, scientists have marvelled at this process that creates such a variety of animals, cell types, and molecules, each with its own highly specialized talents. Darwin was fascinated with the earthworm.

Worm composting or vermiculture uses worms and micro-organisms to convert organic waste into nutrient rich humus. This process occurs naturally in decaying vegetation such as fallen leaves, manure piles or under rotten logs. The worms feed on both the decomposing organic matter and the micro-organisms-bacteria, fungi and protozoa-that are also actively engaged in the decomposition process. The organic matter passes through the worm's digestive tract and is excreted as castings. The resulting compost is made up of these castings and other organic particles. The by-products of this process are water vapour and carbon dioxide, occurring at the natural rate of organic decomposition. Unlike conventional composting, organic material that is being degraded by worm composting does not reach raised temperatures.

This is the vortex of earthworm farming around which everything tending toward success revolves -- the containers in which the earthworm stock is housed. These containers are to the earthworm farmer what chicken coops are to the chicken farmer, though the labour required to keep them serviceable is far below that necessary for efficient poultry rising.

Prior to the arrival of his original stock of earthworms, the fledgling farmer should prepare a compost pit, or, if more convenient, a store of kitchen and garden waste as feed for the worms. This compost is definitely essential and should be kept complete at all times, for it is, one might accurately say, the soil reservoir from which the earthworm farmer draws almost weekly. It should be prepared with a mix of one-third manure, one-third soil and one-third peat moss (or substitute). To this may be added as much of the kitchen waste and garden cuttings, except acids, citrus rinds, pineapples or scouring powders. Karakul sheep manure is the best of all., because they eat almost everything that grows and in so doing they acquire all the elements of the various forms of vegetation and, therefore their manure also contains all these life giving elements. A good grade of soil should be used, preferably a sandy loam. This should be thoroughly screened before it is mixed with the manure and peat moss. The use of peat moss is advisable, principally because it will reduce frequent watering of the earthworm stock. It blends easily with soil and is unequivocally superior to any substitute yet known for use in earthworm culturing. However, if peat moss is unavailable, wood shavings or sawdust may be used. These may be from all woods except redwood. Redwood shavings and sawdust will kill earthworms! Screening is very important. The more often the compost is screened the better it will be as earthworm food. And not only does the screening mix the various elements, but it has a tendency to break them down. Unlike most other animals raised in captivity, the earthworm does not require perfectly-timed and regular attention.

The types of worms generally associated with the processing of organic waste are Eisenia fetida (commonly known as red worm, brandling worm or tiger worm).

Countless thousands of people take delight in decorating the window sills of their homes, apartments or rooms with flowers; and a surprisingly large number raise a limited amount of vegetables and herbs in window sill boxes. A convenient and efficient method for these enthusiasts is to include earthworms to their windowsill boxes and pot plants. A stock of earthworms from say a tablespoonful (about fifty) egg capsules may be satisfactorily begun in a flower pot. An ordinary flower pot should he filled within an inch of the top with rich soil. Place the earthworm capsules in this mixture and set the pot in a saucer of water. Less than a teaspoonful of corn meal should be sprinkled over the soil and a few grains of barley added. Both of these are food for the earthworms, though barley has the added advantage of sweetening the soil. Soil in containers in which earthworms are bred and raised becomes so rich in earthworm castings that the soil must be sweetened. If it were that the earthworm farmer discarded the castings, the procedure of sweetening would not be necessary. But earthworm castings, being of high nutritional value to plant and vegetable life, are constantly kept and used and reused. This system of using earthworm castings may be best explained by comparing them to a sponge. One may fill a sponge with water, squeeze it out and keep this up almost indefinitely. Under ordinary conditions, the fifty earthworm eggs will have hatched and begun breeding in about three months.
Care should be taken to keep the saucer well filled with water. The pot should never be watered from the top. In from three to four months, when the windowsill earthworm farmer is ready for the first harvest of earthworms, another flower pot should be filled with soil and food. The new pot is then placed in a saucer of water. The first pot is removed from its saucer and placed on top of the new container. Through the standard hole in the bottom of the pot, the growing and breeding earthworms will pass from the upper to the lower pot, leaving their eggs behind them.
Earthworms breed so rapidly that from this period onward the window sill farmer will be surprised at the speed with which the earthworm stock increases. Either earthworms or their eggs (or both) may be transplanted from the breeding pots to flower boxes or other pots containing plants as soon as the farmer desires to do so.

These containers are made ready to receive the culture and stock by punching three holes, equidistant, about two inches above the base. Holes are punched in them for the purpose of permitting surplus water to drain off. Under no conditions is crowding of earthworms advisable. The gallon can earthworm farmer will find that his stock increases much faster than it did when he was engaged in breeding and raising them in flower pots. In a few months, the number of gallon cans required to house his constantly increasing family of earthworms will be such that he will be ready to set these aside and turn to larger containers.

Vegetable lugs are both popular and practical for the earthworm farmer. They are easy to handle, weighing less than fifty pounds when properly prepared to receive the earthworm stock. In the bottom of each, six holes should be punched or bored. These should be more or less equidistant apart, three on each side of the bottom. These holes are for drainage of surplus water, and, secondly, to permit the progress of the earthworms from upper to lower boxes. The boxes should not contain more than 800 - 1000 growing and breeding earthworms. When the vegetable lugs become numerous, say 24 to 36, the earthworm farmer needs considerably larger quarters.

A bed size of 1 m wide, 2 m long and 30 cm deep is recommended. Bed width is based on the ease of reaching over them to perform management tasks. Aisles between beds should be 1 m wide to allow for equipment access and bed management. Installation of automatic misting sprinklers helps maintain ideal conditions for worm beds. Bed construction materials include brick, cement, hardwood (not oiled), treated pine and clay banks. Drainage from the beds is essential and holes need to be placed at the base of the brickwork or between timber planks.
Beds are generally placed onto the ground in rows. A concrete floor or another impervious base is ideal, but more expensive. An anti crawl perimeter is recommended to avoid the mass migration of worms out of beds.

Large-scale beds are more applicable to commercial production. They can be as simple as extended small beds of any length; windrows or more sophisticated raised beds. The advantage of raised beds is that they allow for easier separation of the castings, by allowing the dry vermicasts to fall out the bottom when they have been fully utilised by the worms.

Separation (buffer) distances between the vermicomposting operation and nearby water resources (surface and ground water) and neighbouring houses can help to minimise the impact of any odour associated with raw materials (such as manure) and protect the water resources from possible contamination. Separation distances will depend on local council recommendations. Any drainage or leachate from the beds should be collected or contained. Collected leachate can be used as a liquid fertiliser.

The worm beds should be filled with appropriate bedding before the worms are introduced. Wetted newspaper or cardboard (torn into strips or shredded), soil and mature compost make good bedding material for establishing your worm beds. Other suitable bedding materials include dead leaves, straw, sawdust and peat moss. It is important to establish the right conditions in the beds before the worms are introduced. It may take a few days to achieve the optimal operating temperature and moisture conditions. In the bottom of the vegetable lug (prepared as described in the preceding lesson) should be placed one-quarter of a gunnysack (burlap). It should be laid flat so as to cover most, if not all of the bottom of the container. Upon this should be placed some fresh compost from the pit or pile -- to a depth of about two inches. Then empty the contents of eighteen of the spawn bricks into it. Cover this with more compost; scatter a small amount (about a tablespoonful) of corn meal or walnut meal over it. A handful of walnut shells may be added. Now, another quarter of a gunnysack -- or half or whole if you are so inclined -- should cover the contents of the lug. Dampen this thoroughly, using about two quarts of water. Sprinkle about an ounce of barley seed over the burlap and the lug is now ready to be set aside. Corn meal, walnut meal and walnut shells are placed in the lug as food. Barley, likewise, is a food, but it serves the additional purpose of keeping the compost sweet.

Stock a 1 m x 2 m x 30 cm bed with about 1000 (approximately 0.5 kg) mature breeders. Handle them gently and spread them across the surface. Cover the worms with organic matter from the sides of the bed and keep the beds themselves loose so worms can move around freely. The beds should be covered with hessian bags or carpet underlay to help keep light out and to help maintain the correct operating temperature and moisture content.

Worms must be checked regularly. An experienced worm farmer can look after two million worms on a part time basis. With automatic watering and lighting systems, menial chores are reduced to feeding, periodic harvesting and bed maintenance. Worms will migrate from poorly managed worm beds. Worms require plenty of food and moisture, a temperature range from 17'C to 25'C is optimum, with minimal disturbance. They are generally less active during colder periods.
Temperature can be increased by adding more organic matter to the bed. If the temperature rises too high, reduce the amount of organic matter added and turn the top of the bed with a fork to increase aeration.
The beds should be watered regularly to maintain moist conditions. The bedding should be kept moist but not wet. If the bedding becomes soggy, dry newspaper or cardboard can be used to bring the moisture back to the optimal level. The addition of agricultural lime (calcium carbonate) to increase the pH may be necessary. Do not use hydrated lime as it will kill worms. Adding peatmoss or newspaper will increase acidity.

Worms are capable of consuming more than their own weight in organic matter each day from the moment they hatch. The organic matter is softened by moisture or by bacterial action in order for it to be sucked into the worms gut where it is further refined in an internal grinding process. Feeding activity is increased at night. Worms anchor their posterior at the mouth of their tunnels for feeding and stretch to their limits to draw food to the hole.

Beds are usually ready for harvesting when most of the bedding has been depleted, leaving only the castings. There are a number of ways that the vermicasts can be harvested. Hand harvesting starts by placing the cover to one side. Never attempt to pull any earthworms out of the bag. By doing so you will probably pull them apart, injuring them seriously if not fatally. Left untouched, they will crawl out of their own volition, at which time they may be rescued and returned to the compost. The contents of the lug are then dumped in the centre of the bench. With the hands, build it into a pyramidal pile and leave it exposed for from fifteen to twenty minutes.
During this period the earthworms will burrow toward the bottom of the pile, permitting the earthworm farmer to begin his harvest without unnecessarily annoying the breeders. When the pile has been divided, that is, about one-half of the soil with as many egg capsules as could be found is placed in one lug and the balance of the soil containing the breeders placed in the other, both are fed and watered as hitherto explained.
In transferring the growing and breeding earthworms into the second box, the farmer will quickly learn to recognize culls. These become readily distinguishable following a few practices in caring for the earthworms. Culls are either pale or of unusually large proportions. Both types of culls should be destroyed. The large earthworms are, apparently, atavistic and are not to be desired on a well managed and well operated earthworm farm.

Large scale worm farming is a relatively new industry and techniques and machinery are still being developed to mechanise the harvesting process. Light is a powerful management tool in worm farming. It can be used for harvesting and to avoid the night evacuation of worm beds. Harvesting of open beds can be achieved by applying a fresh food source to the top of the bed, covering it to keep out the light and after one week remove the top layer (containing the majority of the worms). Worms will still remain in the bottom material, but for a commercial operation this system can work effectively.
Raised beds are generally designed to allow the vermicasts to be collected from the base of the bed, either by falling through, or by mechanical harvesting. For on-ground beds, the vermicasts can be harvested by first harvesting the worms. Alternatively, the bedding material can be moved to one side of the bed, and fresh bedding and food placed in the empty side. Gradually, the worms will migrate to the new bedding, allowing the old bedding (the pure castings) to be collected. Allowing the migration to occur over a period of about a month will ensure that all capsules remaining in the old bedding have hatched, and the worms migrated.

The earthworm bed is wired for electricity in this new science of electro culture. Between the bed and the electric switch should be placed a transformer, a common electrical device that transforms the electrical current up or down as required. When this system is properly installed, the culture bed prepared, the electric contrivance is ready to be brought into use. Experiments with this system have shown it to have two beneficial advantages for the farmer. First, the larger, mature earthworms, i. e., the breeders, do not come to the surface until a comparatively large volume of electricity is turned into the wires in the culture bed. This assures the breeders comparative safety from capture when harvesting. The second benefit is that the harvester may collect all the earthworms that do come to the surface.

A commercial worm separator must meet the demands of the industry, providing separation into two trays, one for worm and one for cast.

A general summary of trial results appear in the table below.
Crop Effect Recorded within a Trial Environment
Broccoli Increase in yield up to 40% and suppression of Club Root disease on a lab scale.
Carrots Increased and earlier emergence rates, increase in dry weight of tops up to 109% and bottoms 259%.
Cherries 20% increase in yield.
Citrus Citrus yield increases up to 43%, increase in VAM colonisation.
Cotton Increased and earlier emergence rates, increase in VAM colonisation.
Grapes 20% increase in the Baume of Chardonnay, increase in yield 35%-55%.
Lettuce 14% increase in yield.
Mine site Rehabilitation Increased emergence and growth.
Onions Early control of White Rot.
Pasture Increase in Calcium Mobilisation and Nutrient uptake.
Turf Substantial acceleration of root development.
Sugar cane 25% increase in uptake of Nitrogen and yield increases up to 52%.
Tomato 80% increase in yield.

Dr John Buckerfield of the CSIRO, has published trials in which he achieved yield increases of 50% in pinot grown in the Adelaide Hills and 35% in Chardonnay grown in the McLaren Vale through the addition of vermicast with straw mulch. Similar results were obtained in Mudgee grower trials where the major impact was the 20% increase in Baume from 11.3 to 14. In Mudgee the grower grew a cover crop which was slashed over the vermicast as green mulch. The other non-financially quantifiable effect was the fourfold increase in root mass with increases in length, girth and secondary development (Mildura trial), the quicker establishment of the new plantings and the increase in starch laid down ready for next season (Hunter Valley trials). The likely impact of these effects will be healthier more disease resistant vines with heavier sustainable cropping than the controls. The vines will be monitored for second and third year effects, with results looking promising.

The first initial trials focused on seedling propagation. Emergence rate was increased from 50% to 95% on "poor" cauliflower seed. In "good" seed emergence was uniformly earlier with hardier, bigger seedlings ready for plant out up to two weeks earlier. The seedlings were more resistant to downy mildew. The optimum seedling mix varied by specie ranging from 10% to 25% by volume with the standard seedling mix. Higher concentrations produced no appreciable benefit proving the old adage "more is not always better.

Research has been conducted in cherries, citrus, apples and pears. Significant yield and growth improvements have been identified in grower trials, included were the use of compost mulch. The synergies between vermicast and mulching are now being clearly established. Mulches that have been trailed with success include straw, paper, compost and slashed cover crops. As with the work in vines increases in trunk girth, shoot length and root development have been recorded, though the reports are not yet available for publication. Research programs planned for pathogen investigation included white root rot in apples.

Vermicast has proven in several settings to significantly promote the rate of growth of many turf & grass strains. It has also proven to facilitate and hasten the development of the root system, and increase the colour depth of the blades.

The driving force behind the introduction of vermiculture, or other reuse processes, is the global recognition of the need to recover organic material and return this to the soil. Legislation is being enacted to prevent the dumping of organic material to land fill. Simultaneously, the cost structures of dumping are increasing and farmers are becoming more aware of the need to change their practices to halt and reverse the degradation of their soils. There is thus market pressure for the waste processing and the consumption of the end product.
Very Large Scale Vermiculture offers an ecologically and commercially sustainable alternative to co composting or lime stabilisation.

The major advantages are:

A pollution free process. It produces no odour or leach ate.
cost competitive;
capable of being installed within the grounds of a treatment plant eliminating transport of raw sludge;
could be used to process other organic wastes generated in the region;
produces a higher value end product into an unsaturated, expanding market

Vermiculture is the process by which organic material is fed to a variety of worm species with the purpose of converting the organic material into increased worm biomass and vermicast. Vermicast is the excreta from worms and has use as a plant growth medium and soil conditioner. Worms have an ability to convert a wide range of organic material including sewage sludge provided that the material is presented in an acceptable form. Many laboratory scale experiments were carried out and many small scale operations exist. Three types of processes were considered, composting, lime stabilisation and vermiculture.
The installed system consists of a central worm farm; collection from each of the five treatment plants is by well proven covered hook lift mounted sludge bins. The worm farm is divided into two areas, the worm bed/waste receiving area and the vermicast storage/ post processing area. The worm beds occupy an area of 100m x 80m. The surface is bitumen sealed and drains to a leach ate dam with first flush control.

The beds are galvanised steel framed with the waste and worm biomass contained within a raised mesh cage. The 14 beds are each 3.6m wide and 70 m long. The beds are modular and can be configured to any length. The total available surface area for feeding exceeds 3,000m2 giving a capacity of 400m3/week. The raised cage system is a continuous flow process. Waste is fed to the surface. The worms progressively stabilise the material. The fully stabilised material is harvested from the base. The design maximises the retention of the worm biomass, eliminating the need to separate the worms from the vermicast. It also optimises the environment to promote the development of beneficial bacteria and fungi.

The waste from the five sites is received into a mixing area. Prior to the commencement of operations, sludge was collected from each of the five plants and fed to the worms over a six week period to determine the correct blending to ensure attractiveness of the sludge to the worms. Each waste has its own blend requirement. The objective of blending is to deodorise and aerate the waste and adjust the Carbon/Nitrogen balance, the pH and salinity. A range of mineral, organic and bacterial additives may be mixed depending on the nature of the waste material and the state of the worm beds. The standard practice of collection, blending and feeding on the same day minimises the potential for any odour build up.

The worm beds once fully populated are fed across their entire surface on a daily regime. Controlling the depth of feeding is critical to the process. If too much is fed, or if it is fed to thickly, there is potential for the material to compost, or turn anaerobic. Both conditions prevent worm activity. It is thus essential that the quantity fed match the daily quantity consumed by the worms.

The grinding and tumbling action within the worm gut reduces the sludge particle size exposing a greater surface area to a range of viruscidal enzymes and a host of bacteria. After excretion the sludge particles continue to be exposed to an aerobic environment in the raised cage beds with very high bacterial and fungal populations. Stabilisation is progressive down through the bed. This illustrates the typical pathogen reduction profile from raw waste through to stockpile vermicast. Vermicast is applied at relatively low rates. Less than a tonne to the hectare is the recommend rate for all but the most degraded soils.

Vermicast is worm excreta. But it is completely different to the original sludge. Vermicast harvested from the base of the bed will have been in the bed in excess of 80 days. It is odourless, smelling like good soil. It will be fully cast, free from live worm and viable eggs. Post processing consists of windrow drying under cover, blending for quality and screening to obtain a uniform product. The product is not sterilised or pasteurised, but meets all stabilisation criteria. Final pH is in the range 6.37.2. CEC exceeds 30.
Vermicast is sold by specification as a fertiliser and as a soil conditioner by generic type. Vermicast quality will vary according to the food source, the production process used and the post processing practices.

Increases in the rate of seed germination.
Acceleration of root development.

Seedlings are more advanced and ready for replanting significantly earlier.
Plants are hardier and more disease resistant.
There is a greater uptake of Nitrogen, beyond the amount contained within the vermicast.
Vermicast has fair levels of N:P:K; a broad range of trace elements; neutral pH; high cation exchange capability; high organic matter and is biologically active containing live bacteria and fungi.

Large scale vermiculture has some distinct advantages:

The process is odourless.
The minimal leachate produced is easily contained and used as worm tea.
Because the process is pollution free it can be installed within the precinct of the treatment plant.
The sludge is converted into an enhanced product.
Other organic wastes such as dirty paper and cardboard, vegetable and food processing, abattoir material and green waste can be incorporated into the blend.
The end product vermicast is "odourless".
Vermicast is easily transported. It can be bagged, or shipped in bulk without any negative impact on the product, or the environment.

The very large system concentrates nature’s biological cleaning agents - worms, bacteria and fungi into a continuous flow process. The process meets, or exceeds all regulatory requirements providing a publicly popular solution to the problem of sludge disposal. The process is cost effective for waste producers allowing them to meet even the most stringent waste reduction targets without any increase in costs. The vermicast end product is superior to all else.